local content requirements advantages and disadvantages

The first element of an LCR to consider is the type of measure it can take. Nonetheless, if we rank them by the number of local content requirements that they have, our ranking will be as follows for the top 8 countries. Sign up to highlight and take notes. Two core principles of GATT are that countries should apply national treatment in the way they treat foreign goods meaning that the treatment accorded to local goods should also apply to foreign goods and that governments should not apply any quantitative restriction of exporters. ICTSD (2016): WTO decision on local content requirements will not affect India solar ambitions, officials say. Local content requirementsare a type of trade protection mechanism that depends on the law to create requirements for international companies and forces them to produce or rent a certain amount of goods and services domestically. A second multilateral option is the start of negotiations in the WTO. This also highlights problems in the accountability of trade rules violations in the current world trade governance (Evenett, Fritz, 2016, 21). This holds particularly true for developing countries entering technology sectors like information technology or renewable energy sectors (Hufbauer et al., 2013, 2). According to the GlobalTradeAlert database, the countries with the currently biggest activity in LCRs are Argentina, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Russia, Saudi Arabia and the USA (see figure 1.1). China, India and South Africa experience lower impacts and show a price increase for firms of respectively 0.2 percent, 0.5 percent and 0.7 percent. Disadvantages of Local Content Policy Even these requirements may provide benefit to the developing markets in the short term, this pose a major threat to the global competitiveness of the industries. Source: http://oica.net/wp-content/uploads/stats-definition1.pdf, [5] http://www.oica.net/wp-content/uploads//all-vehicles-2011.pdf. Wind power benefits local communities. Therefore, they will cause price imbalances and inefficiencies. This is especially true for a price effect on the entire economy which has stronger consequences for the overall economy than the industry output gain in one sub-sector. Each of these three dimensions affect the economic burden of an LCR in a different way as demonstrated in Figure 2.1. Local content policy disadvantages Local content requirements can bring about negative consequences such as inflationary pressure on prices, incentivising business to misallocate resources, and impacting on trade relations by using a form of protectionist measure. A country-specific analysis in Figure A3 shows that indeed across all countries most LCRS are comprised of a horizontal nature. The Role of Trade Policy in Promoting Sustainable Agriculture, The UKs First International Trade Negotiation Agriculture at the WTO, The Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership: An Accident Report, Food Security and the EUs Common Agricultural Policy: Facts Against Fears. In addition, throughout the last century in many cases governments have favored domestic companies in assigning contract for public procurement (Hufbauer et al., 2013, 35). Russia also holds strong data localization requirements. Many sought to overcome their strong dependency on other economies and aimed at export diversification. Available at: https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds456_e.htm (retrieved on 17 September 2017), Figure A1: LCRs by type for each BRICS country, Figure A2: LCRs by impact for each BRICS country, Figure A3: LCRs by scope for each BRICS country. The river plays a core role in the lives of nearly 40 million people around the Aral Sea Basin. Swiss National Centre of Competence in ResearchAvailable at:https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1092840 (retrieved on 12 April 2017). LCRs should be part of a new working agenda for the WTO, and a good opportunity to have a discussion about them is at the Ministerial Meeting in December 2017. 46(5), pp 5-26. 747 772. This has been particularly true since the financial crisis of 2008. While the EUs coordinated response to the Kremlins attack on Ukraine has been effective with sanctions or energy, The Economic Impact of Local Content Requirements: A Case Study of Heavy Vehicles, The Economic Losses from Ending the WTO Moratorium on Electronic Transmissions. There is new attention given to LCRs and concerns have been raised time and again at the WTO and in trade discussions among governments. The lack of investment decreases international technology transfer. During the meeting of the Committee on Trade-Related Investment Measures (TRIMS), they shared these concerns with the countries that apply local content requirements in their trade policies. By:Hanna DeringerFredrik ErixonPhilipp LamprechtErik van der Marel, Subjects:European UnionRegionsWTO and Globalization. The Indonesian Bill on Mineral and Coal Mining is a definitive example of local content requirements. Figure 2.2: Types of LCRs, level of impact and scope in automotive sector in BRICS. Local Content Requirements have grown in frequency and consequence for the world economy, and as previous chapters have shown, they are more frequent in some sectors than others. First, local expression as a "good" is much more intrinsically linked to the identity of the nation than other goods, such as cars or computers. They have also become the focus of attention because most countries are using LCRs or other forms of localization measures intended to tie assets or output to one particular territory. International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (ICTSD), Geneva, Switzerland. LCRs that affect the automotive industry are more or less equally spread across all BRICS countries, except for South Africa. With the use of econometric techniques, we can therefore estimate the costs of protection resulting from non-tariff barriers such as LCRs, which can be compared with a tariff. The price impact for imported heavy vehicles is most significant in Brazil and Russia with an estimated increase of 13.7 percent and 9.7 percent, respectively. As a result, the coefficient outcomes should only pick up the differential effect of LCRs for Heavy Vehicles. Furthermore, in the aftermath of 2020, the number of laws that promotes domestic production increased significantly. Some of those reforms (re-)introduced aspects of protectionist policy. Thus, increased research and factor costs are also reflected in a watchs final cost. Published That spurred business activities, creating more jobs and incomes at home. Related to this vision, local content requirements became a reason to be concerned for WTO. 1, pp. To illustrate these negative impacts for foreign companies and the overall economy implementing the LCR, three examples of specific LCRs will be briefly mentioned below. The second option to consider for how to address LCRs is based on bilateral agreements. In order to fulfill your content requirement, you might think about two options: Write yourself; Hire writers; Outsourcing outshines both options. In the short-term, local content requirements can help governments to achieve their goals. 93, by Sbastien Miroudot, Rainer Lanz and Alexandros Ragoussis, Paris: OECD Publishing. (Evenett & Fritz, 2016). Ramdoo, Isabelle (2015): Unpacking Local content Requirements in the Extractive Sector: What implications for the Global Trade and Investment Frameworks? First, many WTO members have signed Bilateral Investment Treaties (BITs) or International Investment Agreements (IIAs) that are already used to resolve disputes between states and between an investor and a state. The Coping Styles Formulation worksheet identifies a list of problems, potential coping strategies, and the advantages and disadvantages of each one. This depends on the country and the sector. What is the minimum threshold for local content? In sum, LCRs not only constrain gains from trade, but also lead to higher production costs which can result in higher domestic prices and can even potentially create productivity losses. The frequency of its application in recent years, however, is striking. Note, however, that the variable LCRdsis actually made of an interaction term which is comprised of two dummy variables: one that identifies whether a BRICS country applies a type of LCR or not; the other identifying whether the HS 6-digit code belongs to the sub-sector level of Heavy Vehicles or not. This process of making an LCR numerical so as to measure their impact is called tariff equivalents, or ad valorem equivalents (AVEs). Mobile devices are here to stay. (b) refrain from adopting measures requiring the formation of partnerships with local companies, unless such partnerships are deemed necessary for technical reasons and the Party can demonstrate such technical reasons upon request by the other Party;. We use the default macro-closure which applies a savings-driven model, i.e. Create and find flashcards in record time. A comparative analysis of AVEs and tariffs shows that Brazil remains most protected regarding both, AVEs and tariffs. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 was a Keynesian economic solution to relieve the economy to an extent through fiscal policy. Whereas, EU imports from these two countries are estimated to diminish by 4.7 percent and 3.1 percent, respectively. Some countries have given LCRs a central role in their recent trade policy and consequently introduced more discrimination and restriction in how exporters can access markets. Set individual study goals and earn points reaching them. The LCRs which are included in this model are collected in a database[1] ECIPE has constructed and cover BRICS countries only. Rethink and Reset: Time to Get Rid of The Stability and Growth Pact? Just like other types of NTBs, LCRs have existed for several decades already. By analysing a measurable subset of the trade-related LCR measures using the OECD METRO trade model, our work shows that LCRs cause a decline in global imports and exports across not just trading partners, but for the imposing economy as well. Figure 2.5 shows that a slight majority of the LCRs have a low impact. It provides a general overview analysis of the use of LCRs in the world economy, with a particular focus on large emerging economies. The AVEs for each country are introduced fully as an import tariff in the model simulation and not as trade efficiency effects, because the price impact of the LCRs is considered to not result from an actual cost increase of production or a trade inefficiency. Therefore, in order for consistent comparison, this category is taken out. Therefore, local content requirements will increase inflation due to increased production costs and affect the demand structure in the market. LCR measures related to trade can take on various forms but an increase has been observed in the use of LCRs related to data localization requirements. India has least distortive LCRs in place as it has the lowest AVEs. These country-specific frequency shares are then multiplied by the overall AVEs to come up with an AVE for LRCs by country. The inefficiencies arising in other sectors due to the LCR actually reduce job growth and opportunities to achieve economies of scale, undermining the original goals for imposing the LCR. When translating these percentage changes into trade values using the year 2016, EU exports are reduced by 579 million USD to China, by 131 million USD to South Africa, and by 129 million USD to Russia. A further area would thus relate to the notification procedure, which means clearer obligations for all countries to notify to other countries when they are introducing a measure involving a localization requirement. Analysis by the OECD has shown that for select measures, 80% of disrupted trade is in intermediate goods, disproportionately affecting global value chains. [5] In the estimations, only LCRs related to government procurement, investments, financial support and business operations, and market access have been taken into account, while LCRs related to exports and data localization have been taken out in the econometric analysis. What is local content requirements and voluntary export restraint? Available at:http://www.globaltradealert.org/sites/default/files/GTA%2019%20-%20World%20Trade%20Plateaus_0.pdf (retrieved on 15 April 2017), Ezell, Stephen J.; Atkinson, Robert D.; Wein, Michelle A. Based on the results for the two types of LCRs with significant impact, we computed the tariff equivalents for each BRICS country which are shown in Figure 2.7. It promotes local production. Third, our estimations show that LCRs increase industry output in the targeted sector, but only at the expense of other closely related industries which decrease their industry production. In both panels, all LCRs recorded in the database are sorted by their level of impact and scope. Single measures may have been announced to be just temporary but turn out to be more permanent (Stone et al., 2015, 12). Second, these price effects carry on and also affect consumer prices as well as the prices paid by firms in the heavy vehicles industry for final and intermediate goods. Their growth and consequences have now become a major concern for global trade policy and should warrant far more attention, both in economic analysis of trade and in the articulation of trade policy. The analysis illustrates the detrimental impact of LCRs, highlighting again the need for policymakers to address the growth of LCRs and their significance in modern protectionism more thoroughly. LCRs are policy instruments that can have pernicious effects for international trade, productivity and welfare for the country imposing them. While the benefits are great, there are advantages and disadvantages to everything in life; and this also applies to global sourcing. The sectoral level in our case study is comprised of the entire motor vehicles sector whereas the sub-sector level represents the heavy vehicles sector only, which is a sub-set of the motor vehicle sector. In fact, the expanding heavy vehicles industry needs more labour and capital, which is withdrawn from other sectors. Another revealing case is the policy in China which requires foreign enterprises to establish joint ventures with Chinese firms with a minimum share of 50 percent remaining in Chinese ownership as a precondition of operating in the Chinese market (Ezell et al., 2013, 17). When increasing local content requirements, the demand for domestic raw materials increases. The second dimension of an LCR to consider is its impact. Available at:http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/549241468326687019/pdf/789940REVISED000Box377371B00PUBLIC0.pdf (retrieved on 13 April 2017). Requires extensive preventative maintenance and monitoring. Have all your study materials in one place. The belief is that, if companies that export to a country are forced to invest there, the outcome will be much better in terms of jobs and growth. Second, LCRs significantly increase the prices for imported heavy vehicles leading to higher prices for firms as well as consumers. which are assessed as having a low impact. In China, India and South Africa more than three thirds of the LCRs are applied on a horizontal level, while in Brazil more than half of the measures are horizontal and in Russia slightly less than half which are horizontal. 13, No. World Bank Study, Washington DC. Figure 2.3 provides the share division of LCRs for each BRICS country. For the purpose of our analysis, the definition of the sector of heavy vehicles refers to the definition of the European Commission, according to which heavy-duty vehicles (HDV) comprise trucks, buses and coaches.[4]. Any distortion in this process requires great coordination by international firms. 31, No. WTO (2017c): DS456: India Certain Measures Relating to Solar Cells and Solar Modules. The paper argues that if policymakers do not pay close attention to how "local" is defined, the benefits of local content requirements (LCRs) may be captured by "outsiders." In: Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. The specific rules and obligations of the accord have to be carefully constructed and set in a context that would not be discriminatory. HS heading 8702) are included in the OICA classifications light commercial vehicles or buses and coaches (depending on their mass). According to eMarketer, the average consumer will spend roughly 4 hours and 29 minutes on mobile daily this year, making it a key opportunity for marketers to reach their desired audience.But not all marketers know how to use location-based technology effectively. Von Unger, Eckart (2016): Local content requirement: Back-door protectionism? The reduction of heavy vehicles imports for Brazil is 21 percent and for Russia 12 percent. Choosing to invest in a manufacturer from your home country can involve higher prices than if . For instance, in the EU-Singapore agreement there is a specific chapter on non-tariff barriers to trade and investment in the renewable energy generation that specifically addresses LCRs. In comparison to a large container that needs shipping around the world, local suppliers can enable quick turnaround or smaller production runs Allows for just in time manufacturing A dispute in the WTO will only cover the referenced measures in the complaints. To comply with LCRs, many companies are applying the strategy of relying on local services providers in the market in question. Especially after the global economic crisis of 2008, we can see a significant amount of increase in number of local content requirements1. For example, to be sold as Swiss-made, the watch must be assembled, inspected, and developed in Switzerland. Local content requirements (LCR) are a type of protection mechanism that aims to prevent the local industry from the negative outcomes of international trade. In addition to the direct impact on the economy, local content requirements also increase the production costs for international firms. horizontally). Instead of reaching out to international supplies, you instead choose to buy from local manufacturers. Moreover, especially major multinational companies strongly invest into R&D to improve their products. In: Review of International Political Economy, Vol. The main goal of the WTO is to promote free trade with regard to fair and undistorted competition. That coalition can work through the Geneva missions of WTO members. 7.805 Additionally, the Panel notes that the local content requirements identified and discussed in sections above "require the . This entails a strong bias between production and services which is artificially created by LCRs. For example, in Indonesia, some sectors promote local content requirements of as much as 80%. Similarly, LCRs related to investment are also mainly horizontally applied and are considered to have a rather low level of impact. These other types of LCRs are found to have an insignificant effect on their trade in heavy vehicles. It is a multiregional, multi-sector, computable general equilibrium model, characterized by perfect competition, constant returns to scale and Armington elasticities. 4.3. . The data in Figure 1.2 also showed that besides other sectors in which many LCRs are found, the automotive sector is responsible for 17 percent of all LCRs found across all countries in the world.[1]. The Appellate Body is currently reviewing the case (WTO, 2017a) (see chapter 1). In Brazil exports of heavy vehicles are estimated to drop by 4.7 percent and in Russia by 3 percent. 178 190. The majority of all leading automotive manufacturers have established joint ventures in China as a means to produce locally and avoid the restrictions imposed on foreign automobile companies in the Chinese market (EU SME Centre, 2015, 13). Still, there is a growing awareness in most quarters that LCRs, in the first place, have been damaging to the country that introduced them and that they are already facing (or are at risk of facing) similar measures being applied on their exports. Thereby, countries can boost their productivity, move along to higher stages of the value chain and, ultimately, their international competitiveness (Ezell et al., 2013, 13). Many LCR may even remain unnoticed because of inadequate information and late notification to the WTO (Cinimo et al., 2014, 11). GATT Article III:5 states that it prohibits regulations concerning the processing or use of products in specified amounts or proportions which requires, directly or indirectly, that any specified amount or proportion of any product which is the subject of the regulation must be supplied from domestic sources (our italics). Nonetheless, we should keep in mind that an increased amount of local content requirements causes international firms to cease investing. In addition, 17 LCRs target specifically the automotive sector at large which covers various sub-sectors such as overall motor vehicles and parts and components of this sector as well as the heavy vehicles sectors. Thus, if a company wants to extract the resources of Indonesia, it must construct local facilities that can process the raw material after extraction. For the consumption side, there is to our knowledge no consumption data available on a sub-sectoral level for the countries analysed, which would show which agents in the economy consume which types of motor vehicles. http://www.globaltradealert.org/measure/brazil-local-production-related-tax-exemption-applicable-automobile-products (retrieved on 15 May 2017). These studies have generally concluded that while LCR policies may achieve certain short-term objectives, they undermine industrial competitiveness and overall employment over the long-run. The figure shows that Brazil has 20 measures in place that represents a share of 27.8 percent. Figure 2.3: Share (of number) of LCRs by BRICS affecting the automotive sector. Figure 2.13: Impact on prices of heavy vehicles. Depending on the type of LCR it could, for example, be simulated as a quantity restriction (e.g. The US Trade Representative (USTR) established the Trade Policy Staff Committee Task Force on Localization Barriers to Trade in 2012. The Good, the Bad and the Ugly: Taking Stock of Europes New Trade Policy Stra Europe and the Eurozone: No Vision, No Strategy? The year 2015 is chosen for the regression analysis. The work presented here provides new evidence of the detrimental effects these policies . In the case of Russia, they even by far surpass the protection level of tariffs. Furthermore, the complexity and changing nature of LCRs exacerbates distinguishing LCRs from other types of NTBs or blur the lines between categories. Like any applied economic model, the model is based on a number of assumptions which simplify the complex policy framework governing the economy in reality. Behind this new interest is not just the growth of LCRs. Some LCR measures are formulated for a narrow industry only and may therefore have overall a less distortive impact on a country (or industry) than an LCR which applies to the whole industry or even the entire country (i.e. Likewise, specific approaches on sectoral rules on LCRs can also be found in the EU-Canada agreement. If you start looking around, you can see them and may be surprised when you realize they are hiding in plain sight. They have been introduced by developed as well as developing countries in a variety of sectors including automotive, oil and gas, ICT and energy. Earn points, unlock badges and level up while studying. Note: Robust standard errors in parentheses clustered by distance; *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1. For instance, the US Buy American Act, or ARRA, has a wider reach so that infrastructure, education, health and renewable energy were included, but also has provisions aimed at the iron and steel industry. In addition, it clearly prohibits LCR measures that have the intent of introducing a trade-balance requirement concerning the amount of goods that a company can import in view of the products that it exports. Mussa, Michael (1984): The economics of content protection. This is because LCRs are often concentrated to some sectors and the sectoral approach can be much more specific concerning the obligations of a country to remove LCRs and not introducing them in the future. Grossman, Gene M. (1981): The Theory of Domestic Content Protection and Content Preference. Using simulations from the general equilibrium model, we provide an estimate of the impacts of LCRs for the heavy vehicles sector on the wider economy in BRICS countries. What is sauce for the goose is sauce for the gander, and the use of LCRs by one country prompts or encourages others to do it, too. One example is the Amu Darya Basin and Regional Treaties signed in 20112. These two key bodies of rules have also been frequently referenced by countries that in the WTO have asked countries to explain and detail the LCR measures they have introduced. The first one is the protect local companies from competition since the workers wages must be the same as the local companies. This illustrates the significance of LCRs as an impediment to international trade with the resulting negative spill-over effects for the economy and business that outlined above. Abstract This paper explores the regional economic impact of mineral resource endowment and offers specific inputs to the debate on the local content requirement (LCR) policy, gaining urgency in modern economic and political environment. The BRICS form an emerging set of countries that have obtained a wider footprint in the world economy and along with economic expansion they have also gained ground in the automotive sector. However, for all other BRICS countries a negative correlation between tariffs and AVEs can be observed: the BRICS countries with lower tariffs tend to have higher AVEs and vice versa. Here we used the data for the corresponding category of commercial vehicles, which includes include light commercial vehicles, heavy trucks, coaches and buses. While many localisation barriers have been around for a number of years, they are being applied with increasing frequency. Furthermore, it effectively creates skilled labor with education and increases employment among Afghan Nationals. The Uruguay Round was launched and concluded successfully, and it aimed to tackle the use of LCRs. The Indonesian Bill on Mineral and Coal Mining was a set of regulations, and it was the first legal approach to mining since 1998. This is a local content requirement from two perspectives. LCRs related to investments are less prevalent whilst market access LCRs do not target any specific item in the heavy vehicles sector. Will you pass the quiz? The main aim of the local content requirements is to prevent domestic companies from heavy competition caused by international companies pressure over the local market structure. This database is used as a basis for the assessment of the economic costs of these LCRs for BRICS countries. Other LCRs regarding financial support and market access apply for the automotive sector as whole and even a fewer number of LCRs target the sub-sector specifically, which in our case is the heavy vehicle sector. The trade shares for commercial vehicles were calculated with the HS Codes for commercial vehicles based on country specific import and export data for the GTAP sector motor vehicles from UN Comtrade for 2016 (and 2015 for EU and World as latest available year). This means that by estimating the effects of LCRs, the model measures only whether a LCR is present or not, and not their cumulative effects. In: Transnational Corporations, Vol. The economy implementing LCRs is depriving itself from having access to competitive and advanced products, which in the case of trade in automotive products can have a harmful effect on transport efficiency and sustainability within the market and create costs for consumers. The work agenda for such a coalition, or for the entire WTO membership, would first be to shed more light on LCRs through analysis, databases and other activities that help to build knowledge and transparency. However, most LCR measures are related to government procurement, financial support and business operations as well as exports. Second, in the proposed Multilateral Agreement on Investment (MAI) in the OECD, negotiated in the 1990s but never ratified due to intensive NGO campaigning against it, members began to make clarifications to what TRIMS that were not allowed, and those went beyond the TRIMs agreement in the WTO. If you want to compare your policy suggestions with local content requirements policies, then keep reading on! By clicking below, you agree that we may process your information in accordance with these terms. The advantages of having a Local Content strategic plan include: a consistently renewed licence to operate; enhanced engagement with stakeholders; reductions in operational costs by. The first panel shows the number of LCRs implemented by type and level of impact whereas the second panel shows the number of LCRs implemented by type and level of scope. Over the last few decades, intermediate input trade has grown significantly and as a trade flow it has become more sensitive to any type of trade policy costs when compared to final goods trade (OECD, 2009). In addition, as sectors that benefit from the LCR consume more domestic resources, other sectors are forced to reduce production or increase imports, leading to a concentration of domestic economic activity. In terms of their exports of heavy vehicles in 2016 this amounts to approximately 350 and 47 million USD. As a result, the baseline estimation equation is as follows: where tuv stands for the trade unit values by 6-digit HS sector between origin country o and destination country d which in equation (1) has been put in logs. Spread across all BRICS countries, except for South Africa in accordance with these terms Rid of the have... Content protection and content Preference Brazil is 21 percent and in trade discussions governments... 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Was a Keynesian economic solution to relieve the economy, local content requirement from two perspectives (! Withdrawn from other types of NTBs, LCRs significantly increase the production and... We should keep in mind that an increased amount of increase in number laws! In 2016 this amounts to approximately 350 and 47 million USD you can them! Firms as well as consumers countries are estimated to drop by 4.7 percent and Russia! The use of LCRs by BRICS affecting the automotive industry are more or less equally spread across countries! Place as it has the lowest AVEs world economy, with a particular on! In life ; and this also applies to global sourcing when increasing content... Services which is withdrawn from other sectors Centre for trade and Sustainable local content requirements advantages and disadvantages ( ictsd ) Geneva! Raw materials increases Regional Treaties signed in 20112 has the lowest AVEs from your home country can involve higher for! Laws that promotes domestic production increased significantly with these terms particularly true since the financial crisis of 2008, should. You realize they are being applied with increasing frequency at export diversification for domestic raw increases... Capital, which is withdrawn from other types of NTBs, LCRs related to this,. Be found in the EU-Canada agreement vehicles sector of 2008 a reason to be carefully constructed and cover countries! Most protected regarding both, AVEs and tariffs shows that indeed across all countries LCRs! Most LCR measures are related to government procurement, financial support and business operations as well consumers. Particularly true since the financial crisis of 2008 the short-term, local content requirements also increase the for... Review of international Political economy, Vol use of LCRs exacerbates distinguishing LCRs from types! Everything in life ; and this also applies to global sourcing element of an to. Badges and level up while studying increase in number of laws that promotes domestic production increased significantly low impact included...: European UnionRegionsWTO and Globalization structure in the case of Russia, they will price! Process requires great coordination by international firms affect the demand structure in OICA... Are more or less equally spread across all BRICS countries, except for South Africa published that spurred business,... All countries most LCRs are policy instruments that can have pernicious effects for international firms Stability and Growth Pact,... 20 measures in place that represents a share of 27.8 percent come with. Countries are estimated to drop by 4.7 local content requirements advantages and disadvantages and 3.1 percent, respectively reforms re-.

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